Environmental Science Crossword Puzzle No. 1

This is your assignment for January 2010.
Make a print out and submit with answers on our 1st meeting on January.

Across
1. Animal that hunts and eats prey.[8]
3. Organism on or in which a parasite lives.[4]
6. Type of adaptation relating to an organism's shape and size.[10]
8. Relationship where animals of different species help each other.[9]
9. Number of organisms of a species in an area at a particular time.[10]
11. Place where an organism lives.[7]
12. Factor that affects population numbers.[7]
16. Type of adaptation relating to an animal's actions.[11]
17. Organism that feeds off another e.g. tick.[8]
18. Living and non-living surroundings.[11]
19. All the organisms in a given area at a given time.[9]
20. A natural unit of living and non-living parts that interact to produce a stable system.[9]

Down
1. Non-living or abiotic.[8]
2. Study of interrelationships of living organisms with their surroundings.[7]
4. "Living together" of organisms of different species for a long period of time.[9]
5. Animal that is eaten by a predator.[4]
7. Example of a physical factor in the environment is water and air ____.[11]
10. Relationship where two different organisms use the same resource such as food.[11]
13. Characteristic of an organism that enables it to function more effectively in its surroundings.[10]
14. Example of an important living or biotic factor.[4]
15. Example of an important physical factor is amount of drinking ____.[5]

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY/RESOURCES

Natural resource, such as coal, oil, or natural gas, that takes millions of years to form naturally and therefore cannot be replaced once it is consumed; it will eventually be used up. The main energy sources used by humans are non-renewable.In short, these are the things that can run out or can be used up. They usually come from the ground. There are fixed amounts of these resources. They are not living things and they are hard to find. They don't regrow and they are not replaced quickly.

Today, scientists find ways to limit the use of these resources of energy to make them more or less sustainable, lasting not just in the current generation, but also to the next.

What are the non-renewable resources?

a. Wood (Trees) -
Once served as the world's chief fuel. In many developing countries where there are lots of forested area, wood is still the main source of energy. It is also a source of livelihood like furniture making and sculpting (wood carvings). Also, the forests areas needed for farming are being indiscrimately burned using the kainging or slash and burn method.
Although easier said than done, the trend must be towards the creation of sustainable forest:
1. Proper education on the value of forest to discourage slash and burns.
2. Harvesting only what is needed.
3. Planting to replace those harvested.
4. Zero-waste management on wood being harvested. Wood chips and grains can be harnessed as biomass energy.

Kaingin or slash and burn method

b. Coal

This is a result of a half a million to even several million years of compression and heat applied to decaying plants growing in bogs or swampy areas. Because of this length of time for nature to form coal, it is considered a non renewable source of energy.

Coal

About 26% of the world's energy still uses coal as their fuel source, whether for producing heat or electrical.
The Philippines has an abundance of coal, especially in Regions II (Cagayan Valley), VI (Panay, Negros Oriental), and XIII or CARAGA (Agusan and Surigao provinces).

The most notable coald-based power plants are Pagbilao 1 and 2 in Quezon province and ACMDC Coal Plant in Cebu.

Problems using Coal
a) accidents in coal mines
b) diseases that result from breathing coal dust
c) strip mining causes erosion of mining sites
d) when burned, coal releases nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide and other impurities that pollute the air, leading to the formation of acid rain.

The main pollutant that cause acid rain, industries eject sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere which becomes part of the clouds and form acid rainSee how the trees become leafless and dead because of their being exposed to acid rain

c. Petroleum
One of the world's most important resources. Its by products are essential in cooking and heating, powering vehicles and airplanes, and even electricity generation.
Most petroleum is removed from deep within the earth as a liquid called crude oil. Workers pump crude oil out of the earth through wells drilled into oil-bearing formation called reservoirs. Because it is liquid, crude oil can be economically transported long distances by pipelines to refineries. Refineries process it into gasoline and other petroleum products.

Greatest Oil Reserves by Country, 2006

Country	Proved reserves (billion barrels)
1.	Saudi Arabia	264.3
2.	Canada	178.8
3.	Iran	132.5
4.	Iraq	115.0
5.	Kuwait	101.5
6.	United Arab Emirates	97.8
7.	Venezuela	79.7
8.	Russia	60.0
9.	Libya	39.1
10.	Nigeria	35.9
11.	United States	21.4
12.	China	18.3
13.	Qatar	15.2
14.	Mexico	12.9
15.	Algeria	11.4
16.	Brazil	11.2
17.	Kazakhstan	9.0
18.	Norway	7.7
19.	Azerbaijan	7.0
20.	India	5.8
Top 20 countries		1224.5 (95%)
Rest of world		68.1 (5%)
World total		1,292.6

NOTES: Proved reserves are estimated with reasonable certainty to be recoverable with present technology and prices.

Source: Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 103, No. 47 (Dec. 19, 2005). From: U.S. Energy Information Administration.

• Many parts of the country have shown good indications of the presence of petroleum. The Cagayan Valley, Central Plain of Luzon, Bondoc Peninsula in Quezon, Cebu, Leyte, Cotabato, Palawan, and Sulu Sea, are promising petroleum-bearing areas now. Commercial petroleum deposits have been discovered in the western coast of Palawan.
• Top Philippine sites with oil potential includes West Linapacan A/B in Palawan, Carnag-Malampaya in Palawan, Galoc also in Palawan, Maniguin in Mindoro-Cuyo and Matinloc in Palawan.
• Problems using petroleum

a. it takes a lot to form.
b. effective environmental management
i. forest ecosystem must be preserved when creating oil pipes.
ii. leak detectors must be present on oil and pipelines to
detect even a minute spill, thus avoiding a bigger one.
c. burning fuels and power plants contribute to the "greenhouse effect"
d. proper maintenance of vehicles and power plants would ensure
proper burning of these fossil fuels.

D. Natural Gas

• natural gas comes from deposits in the earth
• it is a clean source of energy because it is refined naturally during its formation within the earth and does not require further refining.
• natural gas can be compressed into liquid and transported long distances through pipes.
• September 27, 2001 marked the entry of the Philippines as a producer of commercial grade natural gas with its discovery at the Malampaya well, off the wester coast of Palawan. It was inaugurated last October 16, 2001 at Malampaya - on shore gas plant in Tabangao, Batangas.
• It is a 4.5 billion-dollar project of Shell Philippines Exploration, BV Texaco Philippines, and the Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC-EC)
• Potential supply of 8,000 barrels per day and expected income from 8-10 billion dollar.
• Top sites with natural gas potential includes Carnaga-Malampaya, San Martin in Palawan, San Antonio in Cagayan and Octon in Palawan.

RENEWABLE RESOURCES/ENERGY

A natural resource qualifies as a renewable resource if it is replenished by natural resources at a rate comparable or faster than its rate of consumption by humans or other users.Solar radiation, tides, winds, nuclear reactors, geothermal and hydroelectricity are perpetual resources that are in no danger of being used in excess of their long-term availability. The term alas has the connotation of sustainability of the handlings of waste products by the natural environment.Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of an atom. Atoms are tiny particles that make up every object in the universe. There is enormous energy in the bonds that hold atoms together.

Nuclear energy can be used to make electricity. But first the energy must be released. It can be released from atoms in two ways: nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are combined or fused together to form a larger atom. This is how the sun produces energy. In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy. Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce electricity.

The fuel most widely used by nuclear plants for nuclear fission is uranium. Uranium is nonrenewable, though it is a common metal found in rocks all over the world. Nuclear plants use a certain kind of uranium, U-235, as fuel because its atoms are easily split apart. Though uranium is quite common, about 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is relatively rare. Most U.S. uranium is mined, in the Western United States. Once uranium is mined the U-235 must be extracted and processed before it can be used as a fuel.

During nuclear fission, a small particle called a neutron hits the uranium atom and splits it, releasing a great amount of energy as heat and radiation. More neutrons are also released. These neutrons go on to bombard other uranium atoms, and the process repeats itself over and over again. This is called a chain reaction.

Nuclear reactors are basically machines that contain and control chain reactions, while releasing heat at a controlled rate. In electric power plants, the reactors supply the heat to turn water into steam, which drives the turbine-generators. The electricity travels through high voltage transmission lines and low voltage distribution lines to homes, schools, hospitals, factories, office buildings, rail systems and other users.

Compared to electricity generated by burning fossil fuels, nuclear energy is clean. Nuclear power plants produce no air pollution or carbon dioxide but a small amount of emissions result from processing the uranium that is used in nuclear reactors.

Like all industrial processes, nuclear power generation has by-product wastes: spent (used) fuels, other radioactive waste, and heat. Spent fuels and other radioactive wastes are the principal environmental concern for nuclear power. Most nuclear waste is low-level radioactive waste. It consists of ordinary tools, protective clothing, wiping cloths and disposable items that have been contaminated with small amounts of radioactive dust or particles. These materials are subject to special regulation that govern their disposal so they will not come in contact with the outside environment.

Solar power is the energy derived directly from the Sun. It is the most abundant source of energy on Earth. The fastest growing type of alternative energy, increasing at 50 percent a year, is the photovoltaic cell, which converts sunlight directly into energy. The Sun yearly delivers more than 10,000 times the energy that humans currently use.

Solar dishes

Wind power is derived from uneven heating of the Earth's surface from the Sun and the warm core. Most modern wind power is generated in the form of electricity by converting the rotation of turbine blades into electrical current by means of an electrical generator. In windmills (a much older technology) wind energy is used to turn mechanical machinery to do physical work, like crushing grain or pumping water.

Windmills in Burgos, Ilocos Norte

Hydropower energy derived from the movement of water in rivers and oceans (or other energy differentials), can likewise be used to generate electricity using turbines, or can be used mechanically to do useful work. It is a very common resource.

Maria Cristina Falls in Iligan City

Geothermal power directly harnesses the natural flow of heat from the ground. The available energy from natural decay of radioactive elements in the earth's crust and mantle is approximately equal to that of incoming solar energy.

The natural heat within the earth is the motor of the "geothermal energy". In fact, the earth serves as a hot water-boiler. The heat of the earth warms up water (fluids) which is trapped in rock formations thousands of feet (3,000 meter) beneath the earth's surface.

Worldwide, the Philippines rank second to the United States in producing geothermic energy. Leyte is of the island in the Philippines where geothermic power plants were developed. The developments here started in 1977 by the company Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC). Many of the geothermic natural resources are still waiting to be "harnessed for steam."

Leyte is one of the Philippine islands where geothermal energy is produced.

In the Philippines geothermal energy already provides 27% of the country's total electricity production generated in power plants. Geothermal power plants are on the islands Luzon, Negros, Mindanao and Leyte.

Geothermal Plant in Tongonan, Leyte

The production of the electricity by geothermal plants is cheaper than the electricity produced in plants by using natural gas and coal. It is even cheaper than electricity produced by hydro power stations.

Biomass Energy or Bioconversion

It is just composed of organic materials, most of which are waste. Sources include composting materials, wood, municipal and city wastes, bagasse, coconut waste and animal waste

From biomass, one can get the following:

• ethanol (fermenting high carbohydrate biomass sources)
  
• biodiesel/biofuel (from Jethropa sp.)
• fuel oil
  

Alcohol derived from corn, sugar cane, etc. is also a renewable source of energy. Similarly, oils from plants and seeds can be used as a substitute for non-renewable diesel. Methane is also considered as a renewable source of energy.

POVERTY

Poverty is an economic condition of lacking both money and basic necessities needed to successfully live such as food, water, education, and shelter. There are many working definitions of "poverty" with considerable debate on how to best define the term: (1) income security; and (2) economic stability; and (3) the predictability of one's continued means to meet the basic needs all serve as absolute indicators of poverty. Poverty may therefore also be defined as the economic condition of lacking predictable and stable means of meeting basic life needs.

Causes of Poverty

1. education
2. war
3. natural disasters
4. political corruption
5. mental illness
6. disability

Those who live in conditions of poverty lack a wide range of economic and other resources and may be described as poor, in low income and impoverished. Some see the term as subjective and comparative, others see it as moral and evaluative, while others consider that it is scientifically established.

Poverty is understood in many senses. The main understandings of the term include:

• Description of material need, typically including the necessities of daily living (food, clothing, shelter, and health care). Poverty in this sense may be understood as the deprivation of essential goods and service.
• Descriptions of social need, including social exclusion, dependency, and the ability to participate in society. This would include education, and information. Social exclusion is usually distinguished from poverty, as it encompasses political and moral issues, and is not restricted to the sphere or economics.
• Describing a lack of sufficient income and wealth. The meaning of "sufficient" varies widely across the different political and economic parts of the world.

Measuring Poverty

Poverty may be seen as the collective condition of poor people, or of poor groups, and in the sense entire nation-states are sometime regarded as poor. To avoid stigma these nations are usually called develping nations.

Poverty may be measured as (1) absolute poverty (also known as Graham Parnaby Poor) or relative poverty. It refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. An example of an absolute measurement would be the percentage of the population eating less food than is required to sustain the human body (approximately 2000-2500 kilocalories per day). Absolute poverty is a condition that applies to people with the lowest incomes, the least education, the lowest social status, the fewest opportunities, etc., (2) extreme poverty which is defined by World Bank as living on less than US$ (PPP) 1 per day, and (3) moderate poverty as less than $2 a day.

Factors that have been alleged to cause poverty:

1. Poor, failed, or absence of an infrastructure, lack of opportunities.
2. State discrimination and corruption. Abuse of public power.
3. Lack of social integration. Competition instead of cooperation.
4. Crime
5. Natural disasters
6. Substance abuse; such as alcoholism and drug abuse
7. Procrastination
8. Natural factors such as climate or environment
9. Historical factors, such as imperialism and colonialism
10. Overpopulation. Population growth slows or even become negative as poverty is reduced due to the demographic transition
11. War, i.e. civil war, genocide and democide
12. Lack of education
13. Lack of social skills
14. Matthew effect - the phenomenon, widely observed across advanced welfare states, that the middle classes tend to the main beneficiaries of social benefits and services, even if these are primarily targeted at the poor.
15. Cultural causes, which attribute poverty to common patterns of life, learned or shared within a community. Example, some have argued that Protestantism contributed to economic growth during the industrial revolution.
16. Individual beliefs, actions and choices.
17. Mental illness and disability, such as autism and schizophrenia
18. Excessive materialism
19. Lack of freedom
20. Poverty itself, preventing investment and development
21. Geographic factors, for example fertile land access to natural resources
22. Disease, specifically diseases of poverty: AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis and others overwhelmingly afflict the poor, which perpetuate poverty by diverting individual, community, and national health and economic resources from investment and productivity. Further, many tropical nations are affected by diseases like malaria and schistosomiasis that are not present in temperate climates.
23. Frequent bullying, prevents productivity and development
24. Inadequate nutrition in childhood in poor nations may lead to physical and mental stunning.
25. Inadequate tax systems
26. Age discrimination, gender discrimination, racial discrimination

Effects of Poverty

1. extreme hunger and starvation
2. disease and disabilities low health care services
3. high crime rate
4. increased suicides
5. increased risk of political violence, such as terrorism, war and genocide
6. homelessness
7. lack of opportunities for employment
8. loss of opportunities for employment
9. more susceptible to death from natural resources
10. increased discrimination
11. lower life expectancy
12. drug abuse

Poverty Incidence in the Philippines

Poverty incidence in the country, which refers to the proportion of families with per capita income below the poverty threshold, was placed at 28.1 percent in 1997 and 28.4 percent in 2000 based on the new provincial poverty methodology recently approved by the NSCB Executive Board. Poverty estimates released by the NSCB also show that in 2000, 4.3 million families or 26.5 million Filipinos, more than one-third (34.0 percent) of the country’s population, were living below the poverty line. These figures indicate an increase over the 1997 levels of 4.0 million families or 24.0 million Filipinos striving to make ends meet. The 2003 poverty statistics will be released by the NSCB after the NSO has finished processing the 2003 Family Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES) results.

The annual per capita poverty threshold, or the amount required to satisfy food and non-food basic needs at the national level, reached P11,605 in 2000, 17.9 percent higher than the 1997 threshold of P9,843. Thus, a family of five members should have a monthly income of at least P4,835 to meet their food and non-food basic needs.

Among the 77 provinces of the country and the four districts of Metro Manila, Sulu consistently posted the highest poverty incidence in 1997 and 2000 with 67.1 and 63.2 percent, respectively. Also included among the poorest provinces are Masbate, Tawi-Tawi, Ifugao and Romblon. Four provinces of ARMM are among the 10 poorest provinces in the country.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Basel Convention Definition of Wastes

Wastes are “substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of the law”

Disposal means

“any operation which may lead to resource recovery, recycling, reclamation, direct re-use or alternative uses (Annex IVB of the Basel convention)”

Kinds of Wastes

Solid wastes: domestic, commercial and industrial wastes especially common as co-disposal of wastes

Examples: plastics, styrofoam containers, bottles, cans, papers, scrap iron, and other trash

Liquid Wastes: wastes in liquid form

Examples: domestic washings, chemicals, oils, waste water from ponds, manufacturing industries and other sources

Classification of Wastes according to their Properties

Biodegradable waste is a type of waste, typically originating from plant or animal sources, which may be broken down by other living organisms. Waste that cannot be broken down by other living organisms may be called non-biodegradable.

Biodegradable waste can be commonly found in municipal solid waste (sometimes called biodegradable municipal waste, or BMW) as green waste, food waste, paper waste, and biodegradable plastics. Other biodegradable wastes include human waste, manure, sewage, slaughterhouse waste.

Classification of Wastes according to their Effects on Human Health and the Environment

Hazardous wastes

Substances unsafe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally, or economically that are shipped, transported to or brought from the country of origin for dumping or disposal in, or in transit through, any part of the territory of the Philippines

Non-hazardous wastes

Substances safe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally, or economically that are shipped, transported to or brought from the country of origin for dumping or disposal in, or in transit through, any part of the territory of the Philippines.

Sources of Wastes

Households

Commerce and Industry

Agriculture

Fisheries

Waste Generation by Country(Global Waste Survey Final Report Published by IMO 1995)*

Waste Generation in the Philippines

In Metro Manila:

• It is estimated that 25 million m3 of acid and alkaline liquid waste is disposed of annually from the electronics industry.
• Almost 2,000 m3 of solvents and 22,000 tonnes of heavy metals, infectious wastes, biological sludges, lubricants and intractable wastes are disposed of on land or into water courses.
• 4,000 tonnes of solid wastes are generated daily. Of these, only about 3,400 tonnes are collected and transported to existing sites.

EFFECTS OF WASTES IF NOT PROPERLY MANAGED:

• Affects our health
• Affects our socio-economic conditions
• Affects our coastal and marine environmenT
• Affects our climate

EFFECTS OF WASTES:

• GHGs(GreenHouse Gases) are accumulating in Earth’s atmosphere as a result of human activities, causing global mean surface air temperature and subsurface ocean temperature to rise.
• Rising global temperatures are expected to raise sea levels and change precipitation and other local climate conditions.
• Changing regional climates could alter forests, crop yields, and water supplies.
• This could also affect human health, animals, and many types of ecosystems.
• Deserts might expand into existing rangelands, and features of some of our national parks might be permanently altered.
• Some countries are expected to become warmer, although sulfates might limit warming in some areas.
• Scientists are unable to determine which parts of those countries will become wetter or drier, but there is likely to be an overall trend toward increased precipitation and evaporation, more intense rainstorms, and drier soils.
• Whether rainfall increases or decreases cannot be reliably projected for specific areas.

Activities that have altered the chemical composition of the atmosphere:

• Buildup of GHGs primarily carbon dioxide (CO2) methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N20).
• C02 is released to the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels, wood and wood products, and solid waste.
• CH4 is emitted from the decomposition of organic wastes in landfills, the raising of livestock, and the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil.
• N02 is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels. In 1977, the US emitted about one-fifth of total global GHGs.

WHAT SHOULD BE DONE:

REDUCE WASTE:

• Reduce office paper waste by implementing a formal policy to duplex all draft reports and by making training manuals and personnel information available electronically.
• Improve product design to use less materials.
• Redesign packaging to eliminate excess material while maintaining strength.
• Work with customers to design and implement a packaging return program.
• Switch to reusable transport containers.
• Purchase products in bulk.

RE-USE:

• Reuse corrugated moving boxes internally.
• Reuse office furniture and supplies, such as interoffice envelopes, file folders, and paper.
• Use durable towels, tablecloths, napkins, dishes, cups, and glasses.
• Use incoming packaging materials for outgoing shipments.
• Encourage employees to reuse office materials rather than purchase new ones.
  

Donate/Exchange:

• old books
• old clothes
• old computers
• excess building materials
• old equipment to local organizaitions

RESIDENTS ARE ORGANIZED INTO SMALL GROUPS TO CARRY OUT THE FOLLOWINGl

1. construction of backyard compost pit
2. construction of storage bins where recyclable and reusable materials are stored by each household
3. construction of storage centers where recyclable and reusable materials collected by the street sweepers are stored prior to selling to junk dealers
4. maintenance of cleanliness in yards and streets
5. greening of their respective areas
6. encourage others to join

In the light of growing garbage problem in the country, Republic Act (RA) 9003 also known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 was enacted by the Philippine Government.

The Environmental Management Bureau (EMB), mandated to initiate the programs in line with R.A 9003 together with the Local Government Units briefed further on this Act, during the seminar on Solid Waste Management December 6.

"The unsystematic disposal and collection of our wastes have posed a tough job for our government. With the modernization of society, we have come to accumulate more wastes than we can manage to dispose of properly. Left unmanaged and improperly disposed, wastes can cause serious heath problems to everyone. Moreover, a dirty environment defeats the aesthetic potential of our surrounding," the Bureau in its statement.

In return, RA 9003 provides for a systematic and comprehensive Ecological Solid Waste Management (ESWM) program for all sectors of society to adopt and implement.

Below is a portion of the RA 9003.

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003
(ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000)


AN ACT PROVIDING FOR AN ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT PROGRAM, CREATING THE NECESSARY
INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS AND INCENTIVES, DECLARING CERTAIN ACTS PROHIBITED AND PROVIDING PENALTIES, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.


CHAPTER I

BASIC POLICIES

Article 1

General Provisions

SECTION 1. Short Title. - This Act shall be known as the "Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000."

Sec. 2. Declaration of Policies. - It is hereby declared the policy of the State to adopt a systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste management program which shall:

(a) Ensure the protection of the public health and environment;

(b) Utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of valuable resources and encourage resource conservation and recovery;

(c) Set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoidance and volume reduction through source reduction and waste minimization measures, including composting, recycling, re-use, recovery, green charcoal process, and others, before collection, treatment and disposal in appropriate and environmentally sound solid waste management facilities in accordance with ecologically sustainable development principles;

(d) Ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of the best environmental practice in ecological waste management excluding incineration;

(e) Promote national research and development programs for improved solid waste management and resource conservation techniques, more effective institutional arrangement and indigenous and improved methods of waste reduction, collection, separation and recovery;

(f) Encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management;

(g) Retain primary enforcement and responsibility of solid waste management with local government units while establishing a cooperative effort among the national government, other local government units, non- government organizations, and the private sector;

(h) Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among waste generators through the application of market-based instruments;

(i) Institutionalize public participation in the development and implementation of national and local integrated, comprehensive, and ecological waste management programs; and

(j) Strength the integration of ecological solid waste management and resource conservation and recovery topics into the academic curricula of formal and non-formal education in order to promote environmental awareness and action among the citizenry.

Article 2

Definition of Terms

Sec. 3. Definition of Terms. - For the purposes of this Act:

(a) Agricultural waste shall refer to waste generated from planting or harvesting of crops, trimming or pruning of plants and wastes or run-off materials from farms or fields;

(b) Bulky wastes shall refer to waste materials which cannot be appropriately placed in separate containers because of either its bulky size, shape or other physical attributes. These include large worn-out or broken household, commercial, and industrial items such as furniture, lamps, bookcases, filing cabinets, and other similar items;

(c) Bureau shall refer to the Environmental Management Bureau;

(d) Buy-back center shall refer to a recycling center that purchases of otherwise accepts recyclable materials from the public for the purpose of recycling such materials;

(e) Collection shall refer to the act of removing solid waste from the source or from a communal storage point;

(f) Composting shall refer to the controlled decomposition of organic matter by micro-organisms, mainly bacteria and fungi, into a humus-like product;

(g) Consumer electronics shall refer to special waste that includes worn-out, broken, and other discarded items such as radios, stereos, and TV sets;

(h) Controlled dump shall refer to a disposal site at which solid waste is deposited in accordance with the minimum prescribed standards of site operation;

(i) Department shall refer to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources;

(j) Disposal shall refer to the discharge, deposit, dumping, spilling, leaking or placing of any solid waste into or in an land;

(k) Disposal site shall refer to a site where solid waste is finally discharged and deposited;

(l) Ecological solid waste management shall refer to the systematic administration of activities which provide for segregation at source, segregated transportation, storage, transfer, processing, treatment, and disposal of solid waste and all other waste management activities which do not harm the environment;

(m) Environmentally acceptable shall refer to the quality of being re-usable, biodegradable or compostable, recyclable and not toxic or hazardous to the environment;

(n) Generation shall refer to the act or process of producing solid waste;

(o) Generator shall refer to a person, natural or juridical, who last uses a material and makes it available for disposal or recycling;

(p) Hazardous waste shall refer to solid waste management or combination of solid waste which because of its quantity, concentration or physical, chemical or infectious characteristics may:

(1) cause, or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible, illness; or

(2) pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, or disposed of, or otherwise managed;

(q) Leachate shall refer to the liquid produced when waste undergo decomposition, and when water percolate through solid waste undergoing decomposition. It is contaminated liquid that contains dissolved and suspended materials;

(r) Materials recovery facility - includes a solid waste transfer station or sorting station, drop-off center, a composting facility, and a recycling facility

(s) Municipal waste shall refer to wastes produced from activities within local government units which include a combination of domestic, commercial, institutional and industrial wastes and street litters;

(t) Open dump shall refer to a disposal area wherein the solid wastes are indiscriminately thrown or disposed of without due planning and consideration for environmental and Health standards;

(u) Opportunity to recycle shall refer to the act of providing a place for collecting source-separated recyclable material, located either at a disposal site or at another location more convenient to the population being served, and collection at least once a month of source-separated recyclable material from collection service customers and to providing a public education and promotion program that gives notice to each person of the opportunity to recycle and encourage source separation of recyclable material;

(v) Person(s) shall refer to any being, natural or judicial, susceptible of rights and obligations, or of being the subject of legal relations;

(w) Post-consumer material shall refer only to those materials or products generated by a business or consumer which have served their intended end use, and which have been separated or diverted from solid waste for the purpose of being collected, processed and used as a raw material in the manufacturing of recycled product, excluding materials and by-products generated from, and by-products generated from, and commonly used within an original manufacturing process, such as mill scrap;

(x) Receptacles shall refer to individual containers used for the source separation and the collection of recyclable materials;

(y) Recovered material shall refer to material and by products that have been recovered or diverted from solid waste for the purpose of being collected, processed and used as a raw material in the manufacture of a recycled product;

(z) Recyclable material shall refer to any waste material retrieved from the waste stream and free from contamination that can still be converted into suitable beneficial use or for other purposes, including, but not limited to, newspaper, ferrous scrap metal, non-ferrous scrap metal, used oil, corrugated cardboard, aluminum, glass, office paper, tin cans and other materials as may be determined by the Commission;

(aa) Recycled material shall refer to post-consumer material that has been recycled and returned to the economy;

(bb) Recycling shall refer to the treating of used or waste materials through a process of making them suitable for beneficial use and for other purposes, and includes any process by which solid waste materials are transformed into new products in such a manner that the original product may lose their identity, and which maybe used as raw materials for the production of other goods or services: Provided, That the collection, segregation and re-use of previously used packaging material shall be deemed recycling under this Act;

(cc) Resource conversation shall refer to the reduction of the amount of solid waste that are generated or the reduction of overall resource consumption, and utilization of recovered resources;

(dd) Resources recovery shall refer to the collection, extraction or recovery of recyclable materials from the waste stream for the purpose of recycling, generating energy or producing a product suitable for beneficial use: Provided, That such resource recovery facilities exclude incineration;

(ee) Re-use shall refer to the process of recovering materials intended for the same or different purpose without the alteration of physical and chemical characteristics;

(ff) Sanitary landfill shall refer to a waste disposal site designed, constructed, operated and maintained in a manner that exerts engineering control over significant potential environment impacts arising from the development and operation of the facility;

(gg) Schedule of Compliance shall refer to an enforceable sequence of actions or operations to be accomplished within a stipulated time frame leading to compliance with a limitation, prohibition or standard set forth in this Act or any rule of regulation issued pursuant thereto;

(hh) Secretary landfill shall refer to the Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources;

(ii) Segregation shall refer to a solid waste management practice of separating different materials found in solid waste in order to promote recycling and re-use of resources and to reduce the volume of waste for collection and disposal;

(jj) Segregation at source shall refer to a solid waste management practice of separating, at the point of origin, different materials found in solid waste in order to promote recycling and re-use of resources and to reduce the volume of waste for collection and disposal;

(kk) Solid waste shall refer to all discarded household, commercial waste, non-hazardous institutional and industrial waste, street sweepings, construction debris, agricultural waste, and other non-hazardous/non-toxic solid waste.

Unless specifically noted otherwise, the term “solid waste” as used in this Act shall not include:

(1) Waste identified or listed as hazardous waste of a solid, liquid, contained gaseous or semisolid form which may cause or contribute to an increase in mortality or in serious or incapacitating reversible illness, or acute/chronic effect on the health of persons and other organisms;

(2) Infectious waste from hospitals such as equipment, instruments, utensils, and fomites of a disposable nature from patients who are suspected to have or have been diagnosed as having communicable diseases and must therefore be isolated as required by public health agencies, laboratory wastes such as pathological specimens (i.e. all tissues, specimens of blood elements, excreta, and secretions obtained from patients or laboratory animals) and disposable fomites that may harbor or transmit pathogenic organisms, and surgical operating room pathologic materials from outpatient areas and emergency rooms; and

(3) Waste resulting from mining activities, including contaminated soil and debris.

(ll) Solid waste management shall refer to the discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in accord with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other environmental considerations, and that is also responsive to public attitudes;

(mm) Solid waste management facility shall refer to any resource recovery system or component thereof; any system, program, or facility for resource conservation; any facility for the collection, source separation, storage, transportation, transfer, processing, treatment, or disposal of solid waste;

(nn) Source reduction shall refer to the reduction of solid waste before it enters the solid waste stream by methods such as product design, materials substitution, materials re-use and packaging restrictions;

(oo) Source separation shall refer to the sorting of solid waste into some or all of its component parts at the point of generation;

(pp) Special wastes shall refer to household hazardous wastes such as paints, thinners, household batteries, lead-acid batteries, spray canisters and the like. These include wastes from residential and commercial sources that comprise of bulky wastes, consumer electronics, white goods, yard wastes that are collected separately, batteries, oil, and tires. These wastes are usually handled separately from other residential and commercial wastes;

(qq) Storage shall refer to the interim containment of solid wastes after generation and prior to collection for ultimate recovery or disposal;

(rr) Transfer stations shall refer to those facilities utilized to receive solid wastes, temporarily store, separate, convert, or otherwise process the materials in the solid wastes, or to transfer the solid wastes directly from smaller to larger vehicles for transport. This term does not include any of the following:
(1) a facility whose principal function is to receive, store, separate, convert or otherwise process in accordance with national minimum standards, manure;
(2) a facility, whose principal function is to receive, store, convert, or otherwise process wastes which have already been separated for re-use and are intended for disposals, and
(3) the operations premises of a duly licensed solid waste handling operator who is receives, stores, transfers, or otherwise processes wastes as an activity incidental to the conduct of a refuse collection and disposal business.

(ss) Waste diversion shall refer to activities which reduce or eliminate the amount of solid waste from waste disposal facilities;

(tt) White goods shall refer to large worn-out or broken household, commercial, and industrial appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, dishwashers, and clothes washers and dryers collected separately. White goods ate usually dismantled for the recovery of specific materials (e.g., copper, aluminum, etc.);

(uu) Yard waste shall refer to wood, small or chipped branches, leaves, grass clippings, garden debris, vegetable residue that is recognized as part of a plant or vegetable and other materials identified by the Commission.

To read the full text of RA 9003, please visit these websites

http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/philippines_citizenship_act_9003.html

http://www.tanggol.org/environmental_laws/IRR_ra9003.html

INTRODUCTION TO OZONE DEPLETION

Ozone is both beneficial and harmful to us. Near the ground, ozone forming as a result of chemical reactions involving traffic pollution and sunlight may cause a number of respiratory problems, particularly for young children. However, high up in the atmosphere in a region known as the stratosphere, ozone filters out incoming radiation from the Sun in the cell-damaging ultraviolet (UV) part of the spectrum. Without this ozone layer, life on earth would not have evolved in the way it has.

Concentrations of ozone in the stratosphere fluctuate naturally in response to variations in weather conditions and amounts of energy being released from the Sun, and to major volcanic eruptions. Nevertheless, during the 1970s it was realised that man-made emissions of CFCs and other chemicals used in refrigeration, aerosols and cleansing agents may cause a significant destruction of ozone in the stratosphere, thereby letting through more of the harmful ultraviolet radiation. Then in 1985 evidence of a large "ozone hole" was discovered above the continent of Antarctica during the springtime. This has reappeared annually, generally growing larger and deeper each year. More recently, fears have emerged about significant ozone depletion over the Arctic, closer to the more populous regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

In response to this and additional fears about more widespread global ozone depletion, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was implemented in 1987. This legally binding international treaty called for participating developed nations to reduce the use of CFCs and other ozone depleting substances. In 1990 and again in 1992, subsequent Amendments to the Protocol brought forward the phase out date for CFCs for developed countries to 1995.

Protecting the ozone layer is essential. Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun can cause a variety of health problems in humans, including skin cancers, eye cataracts and a reduction in the body's immunity to disease. Furthermore, ultraviolet radiation can be damaging to microscopic life in the surface oceans which forms the basis of the world’s marine food chain, certain varieties of crops including rice and soya, and polymers used in paints and clothing. A loss of ozone in the stratosphere may even affect the global climate.

International agreements and other legislation have gone a long way to safeguarding this life-supporting shield. Nevertheless, for there to be real and long-lasting success, everyone must become part of the solution. Individual efforts taken together can be powerful forces for environmental change. There are a number of things that we, as individuals, can do to both protect the ozone layer. These include proper disposal of old refrigerators, the use of halon-free fire extinguishers and the recycling of foam and other non-disposable packaging. Finally, we should all be aware that whilst emissions of ozone depleters are now being controlled, the ozone layer is not likely to fully repair itself for several decades. Consequently, we should take precautions when exposing ourselves to the Sun.


Causes of Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between the production and destruction of stratospheric ozone is tipped in favour of destruction. Although natural phenomena can cause temporary ozone loss, chlorine and bromine released from man-made compounds such as CFCs are now accepted as the main cause of this depletion.

It was first suggested by Drs. M. Molina and S. Rowland in 1974 that a man-made group of compounds known as the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were likely to be the main source of ozone depletion. However, this idea was not taken seriously until the discovery of the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1985 by the British Antarctic Survey.

Chlorofluorocarbons are not "washed" back to Earth by rain or destroyed in reactions with other chemicals. They simply do not break down in the lower atmosphere and they can remain in the atmosphere from 20 to 120 years or more. As a consequence of their relative stability, CFCs are instead transported into the stratosphere where they are eventually broken down by ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun, releasing free chlorine. The chlorine becomes actively involved in the process of destruction of ozone. The net result is that two molecules of ozone are replaced by three of molecular oxygen, leaving the chlorine free to repeat the process:

Cl + O3 ® ClO + O2

ClO + O ® Cl + O2

Ozone is converted to oxygen, leaving the chlorine atom free to repeat the process up to 100,000 times, resulting in a reduced level of ozone. Bromine compounds, or halons, can also destroy stratospheric ozone. Compounds containing chlorine and bromine from man-made compounds are known as industrial halocarbons.

Emissions of CFCs have accounted for roughly 80% of total stratospheric ozone depletion. Thankfully, the developed world has phased out the use of CFCs in response to international agreements to protect the ozone layer. However, because CFCs remain in the atmosphere so long, the ozone layer will not fully repair itself until at least the middle of the 21st century. Naturally occurring chlorine has the same effect on the ozone layer, but has a shorter life span in the atmosphere.


FREON FACTS:

You may have heard much talk about Freon and new refrigerants recently. But besides knowing that it is the substance used to produce cold in your refrigerator, many of its characteristics usually remain a mystery to most.

Some of the more common misconceptions are, that eventually, more Freon needs to be added to the refrigerator, odors in the refrigerator are caused by a leak of this gas, and if it does leak inside the cabinet the food stored there is now contaminated. Surprizingly, none of these are true.

Will my refrigerator ever need to be topped up?

No, unlike automobile air conditioners, refrigerators should never need to be topped up. They never need any more refrigerant than they came with from the factory, unless they develop a hole. Holes can be a result of mechanical damage, or from a defect that shows up later in the refrigerator's life because of unanticipated design faults in the refrigerator. Small holes can exist right from when the refrigerator was new and take from one to six years to show their symptoms. In the past, these refrigerators were merely topped up by technicians. The refrigerator could work normally, while leaking out refrigerant gradually. Nowadays however, topping up is no longer an acceptable practice. The hole must be found and repaired, or the refrigerant must be immediately removed before any more Freon escapes.

I seem to always have a gassy smell in my refrigerator. Does this mean it has a small leak?

No, the only time odor is caused by the substances in the hermetic system, is during a large hole situation. In this case, all the refrigerant leaks out and air enters the system. If the compressor is then allowed to stay running, a few hours or perhaps overnight, a pungent oily odor will occur.

What happens is that the electric motor of the compressor is not designed to cut itself out at temperatures above which it will burn the varnish off its windings in an oxygen atmosphere. The mineral based oil that is present in the hermetic system with the refrigerant also darkens and develops an odor when subjected to high heat and oxygen.

So by the time a hermetic system gives off this kind of odor, your refrigerator would no longer be functioning, not even a little bit. The gassy smell you are noticing is coming from a different source.

In my existing refrigerator, can I have the Freon removed and replaced with new ozone friendly refrigerants?

Yes, currently there are many drop-in replacements that can be substituted in either R12 systems or 134a systems. The most common ones presently used are SP34e and R414. There are also two blended refrigerants R406 and R409 that can be used as direct replacements. The new refrigerants will work in your present refrigerator but can't be mixed with other refrigerants. At this time many technicians are using cross compatible refrigerants such as SP34e and R414 but if enough can be recovered and if your system is still clean and none has escaped or been contaminated by air or moisture, the original R12 or 134a can be put back in if the technician has a bit more to make up the difference in what could be recovered. (no recovery can be 100%). If the company has the right equipment they can remove your existing refrigerant, filter it, then return it into your system after a repair, such as a compressor replacement, is complete. At this time new R12 is no longer available and all new refrigerators use 134a.

134a can't be used in an R12 system . This is because the oil used with 134a is incompatible with the oil used in R12 systems. One of the properties of the oil in a vapor compression system is that it atomizes within the refrigerant and circulates with it. Because of the new cross compatible refrigerants, retrofitting an existing system no matter which refrigerant it used is quite a simple matter.

Is Freon or any of the new replacement gasses flammable or explosive?

Freon or 134a is not, but R406, in certain very remote circumstances, could be. R406 is a blended gas that is made from three separate substances HCFC-22=55%, HCFC-142b=41%, and Isobutane=4%. The small portion of Isobutane can cause this replacement to be weakly flammable during leakage. Because of this and the fact also that HCFC-142b has one of the highest ODP's of the HCFCs, a different blend, R409 is becoming more favorable. It is made of the three substances HCFC-22=60% , HCFC-124=25% , and HCFC- 142b=15% . Notice HCFC-142b is a component of R409 but only 15% and it uses no Isobutane.

Is Freon or any of the new replacement gasses toxic?

No, in fact until recently Freon was, and still is in some instances, used to propel medicine directly into the lungs of asthma sufferers. In 1931 the inventor of Freon, Thomas Midgley made a public demonstration that it was harmless by filling his lungs with the gas then blowing out a candle.

If Freon is so non toxic, why is it being banned?

The current scientific theory states that it is because of Freon's eventual effect on the ozone, high up in the earth's atmosphere. The family of Freon type gasses work their way higher and higher into the atmosphere due to kinetic reaction with the other molecules in the air. When released to the atmosphere Freon gradually rises up, even higher then the ozone layer. Once it is higher than the ozone layer it is no longer protected from ultra violet light. Ultraviolet light acts on Freon by breaking it down to its original components. One of these components is chlorine. The liberated chlorine then starts falling back down through the ozone layer changing ozone molecules back to oxygen. Worse yet, what happens on this molecular level is that just one chlorine molecule can destroy millions of ozone molecules on it's way through.

Why is ozone necessary in our atmosphere?

Ozone, in chemical notation as O3, is merely oxygen with three molecules instead of two. It acts like a filter and prevents harmful infrared and ultraviolet rays from entering the lower atmosphere. This is the spectrum of light that is harmful to life on earth. What happens actually is this light causes DNA. strands, present in all living cells, to tangle. In larger organisms, such as a human being, the effect can cause cancer. The organisms most vulnerable to these harmful rays would be the photo plankton that grow on the surface of our oceans. If they were to be destroyed, the entire food chain would be disrupted. This would catastrophically affect all life as we know it. The entire ecosystem could die, and of course we would go with it.

So releasing Freon into our atmosphere has very serious consequences, so serious that the scientists have set limits on virgin production of tapering off to zero. There are also laws being established to make it a criminal offense for anyone who releases, or causes to be released, any ozone depleting substance including Freon. This is why you should never tamper with your hermetic system. Only professional technicians have the appropriate qualifications and equipment to do this work.

Does this mean I'll eventually have to get rid of my refrigerator because it uses Freon?

At this point the chances of that happening are highly unlikely. Refrigerators use very little Freon usually between 4 and 8 ounces. The chance of them starting to leak during normal operating conditions is quite slight. And unlike an automobile's air conditioner, they never need to be recharged and, for that matter, very seldom get into collisions. :>)

The meaning of the term hermetic means the system is sealed to the atmosphere. On a typical refrigerator compressor , its electric motor runs right in the Freon gas, the only connection to the outside is the three electrical terminals. Another factor in your refrigerator's favor is that there are just so many of them. The new blended drop in replacements for R12, R406 and R409 will currently be available until the year 2020.

How should I get rid of an unwanted refrigerator or freezer?

If you are planning to discard any refrigerating appliance that contains Freon, you should have a qualified technician remove and recycle the Freon. Check on this first though, some landfill sites in larger cities are now providing this service.

There may be an easier way though. If you live in a larger center, chances are there are companies that will come to your home free of charge, or pay you a nominal sum to take your used appliance for parts or resale. Failing this, you could haul it into a larger center and drop it off at an appliance recycling or repair shop on your next shopping trip. Be sure to phone ahead and make arrangements with them first.

Is it environmentally prudent to repair my Freon type refrigerator?

Yes, in fact continuing to use it at this time instead of discarding it and buying a new one, is still kinder to the environment, however this is only my opinion. Of course stores selling new refrigerators may have a different one.

Manufacturers are now finally having to comply with new regulations regarding energy consumption. This could have been done a long time ago but there was no motive. Because of this redesigning though, many "bugs" are present that have to be worked out and sometimes the consumer ends up paying for them. On the large scale across the entire nation, the difference in energy consumption is significant, but on an individual basis it likely won't make that much difference to your power bill if you have a 70's or a 90's design.

What would be nice to see, is regulations on new appliances regarding durability and longevity.

Ozone Hole

In some of the popular news media, as well as in many books, the term "ozone hole" has and often still is used far too loosely. Frequently, the term is employed to describe any episode of ozone depletion, no matter how minor. Unfortunately, this sloppy language trivialises the problem and blurs the important scientific distinction between the massive ozone losses in polar regions and the much smaller, but nonetheless significant, ozone losses in other parts of the world.

Technically, the term "ozone hole" should be applied to regions where stratospheric ozone depletion is so severe that levels fall below 200 Dobson Units (D.U.), the traditional measure of stratospheric ozone. Normal ozone concentration is about 300 to 350 D.U. Such ozone loss now occurs every springtime above Antarctica, and to a lesser extent the Arctic, where special meteorological conditions and very low air temperatures accelerate and enhance the destruction of ozone loss by man-made ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs).

Ozone and the Sea Life

Plankton form the foundation of aquatic food webs. Plankton are generally found in the upper layer of the oceans in which there is sufficient sunlight to support the photosynthesis of food. Since UV radiation has the ability to penetrate up to 20 metres down in clear water, plankton and other light dependent organisms often experience cell damage, much as human DNA can be damaged by the strong solar radiation. Both plant (phytoplankton) and animal (zooplankton) species are damaged by UV radiation even at current levels. Since UV radiation is absorbed by only a few layers of cells, large organisms are more protected, whilst smaller ones, such as plankton are among the most severely affected by UV radiation. As plankton make up the base of the marine food chain, changes in their number and species composition will influence fish and shellfish production worldwide. These kinds of losses will have a direct impact on the food supply.

UV radiation has also been found to cause damage to the early developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and other animals. The most severe effects are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval development. Even at current levels, UV radiation is a limiting factor, and small increases in UV exposure could result in a significant reduction in the size of the population of animals that eat these smaller creatures.

Research indicates that many plankton species already seem to be at or near their maximum tolerance of UV radiation. Thus, even small increases in UV levels as a result of ozone depletion may have a dramatic impact on plankton life and on entire marine ecosystems. If ozone layer depletion reached 15% over temperate waters in the mid-latitudes, it would take fewer than five days in summer for half the zooplankton in the top metre of these waters to die from the increased radiation. Additionally, large amounts of young fish, shrimp and crabs would die before reaching their reproductive age. Less food would be available for adult fish and other higher forms of marine life, and therefore for human consumption. This is of particular relevance, as more than 30% of the world's animal protein for human consumption comes from the sea.

Effects of the ozone hole in Antarctica have already been seen in some of the organisms. Most of the Antarctic organisms have a low tolerance for UV radiation since for much of the year, hardly any direct sunlight reaches the continent. With the reduced ozone in springtime, UV radiation has been able to penetrate the atmosphere with a higher intensity. Already at the base of the Antarctica food chain an impact has been felt. Increased UV radiation has already reduced the plankton populations by between 6% and 12%. Consequently, species higher up have felt the impact.

OZONE AND THE LAND PLANTS

Excessive UV radiation inhibits the growth processes of almost all green plants. There is concern that ozone depletion may lead to a loss of plant species and reduce global food supply. Plants form the basis of the terrestrial food web, prevent soil erosion and water loss, and are the primary producers of oxygen and a primary removal sink for carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas.

Exposure to UV radiation may have a dramatic effect on terrestrial plant life, although the impacts are at present poorly understood. Absorption of UV radiation varies widely from one organism to the next. In general UV radiation affects plant growth by reducing leaf size and limiting the area available for energy capture during photosynthesis. Plant stunting and a reduction in total dry weight are also typically seen in UV-irradiated plants, with a reduction in the nutrient content and the growth of the plants, especially in the pea and cabbage families. A reduction in quality of certain types of tomato, potato, sugar beet and soya bean has also been observed. Forests also appear to be vulnerable. About half of the species of conifer seedlings so far studied have been adversely affected by UV radiation. Although old needles are able to protect themselves by strengthening their outer wax coating and by increasing the amount of protective pigment, young growing pine needles in contrast, suffer easily. Indirect changes caused by UV radiation, such as flowering and germination rates, changes in plant form and how nutrients are distributed within the plant, may be more important than the damaging effects of the radiation itself.

Reliable scientific information on the effects of UV radiation on plants however, is limited. Only 4 out of 10 terrestrial plant ecosystems (temperate forest, agriculture, temperate grassland, and tundra/alpine ecosystems) have been studied. In addition, much of the existing information comes from greenhouses where plants are more sensitive to UV radiation than those grown outdoors. There are indications that some weeds are more UV-resistant than crops. Many organisms have developed mechanisms for protecting themselves against over-exposure to UV radiation, for example by shielding themselves with pigment and repairing damaged DNA or plant tissue. However, for many organisms these mechanisms may not be sufficient to protect against increased levels of UV radiation as a result of ozone depletion.

Exposure tests made in USA and Australia have showed that over one hundred species of land plant could be sensitive to increases in UV radiation as a result of stratospheric ozone depletion. Some research has suggested that a 25% ozone depletion could result in a comparable reduction in total soya bean crop yield. International research has revealed that some species of rice suffer from even minor increases in UV radiation. Research into the efficient breeding and cultivation of strong species may help to offset some of the damaging effects of stratospheric ozone loss.

Ozone and the Immune System

Ozone's unique physical properties allow the ozone layer to act as our planet's sunscreen, providing an invisible filter to help protect all life forms from the Sun's damaging ultraviolet (UV) rays. Most incoming UV radiation is absorbed by ozone and prevented from reaching the Earth's surface. Without the protective effect of ozone, life on Earth would not have evolved the way it has.

The ozone layer protects us from the harmful effects of certain wavelengths of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. The danger to humans from UV radiation comes mainly from the UV-B range of the spectrum, although UV-A poses some risk if exposure is long enough. UV radiation is harmful to the eyes, can damage the immune system and over time can lead to the development of skin cancers. If ozone in the stratosphere is destroyed, more UV radiation will reach the Earth's surface, and incidences of these health effects will increase.

OZONE AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

UV radiation from the Sun can benefit health, generating vitamin D production in the skin. The required amount of radiation is, however, quite small. In summer, an exposure of 15 minutes to the hands and face is adequate. Vitamin D is also found in food. A normal diet will provide enough vitamin D for people even in winter. In the treatment of some skin diseases such as psoriasis, UV radiation is being effectively exploited. Under a doctor's control, the benefit from the treatment is much greater than any consequential increase in skin cancer risk.

However, over exposure to UV radiation can impair the body's ability to fight off disease, in addition to causing cancer and a range of eye disorders. UV suppresses the immune system, irrespective of skin colour, making it easier for tumours to take hold and spread.

UV radiation suppresses allergic reactions of the skin and affects the immune system. When skin has been over-exposed to UV radiation, the activity of antibody-producing white blood cells is suppressed. These effects are not restricted to the part of skin actually subject to exposure, but may also occur on shielded parts of skin and throughout the whole immune system. As a result, the body fails to produce the antigens required for defence against a variety of diseases. This could have serious consequences, including a much-diminished effectiveness of vaccinations.

At the present time, the significance of a weakening of the immune system caused by UV radiation is not properly understood. The weakening can possibly act to promote the development of skin cancers and worsen infectious diseases stemming from bacteria, viruses and tropical parasites. It may also activate viruses already present on the skin, such as herpes, and lead to an increase in diseases like measles, malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy and fungal infections, all of which have a stage involving the skin. People carrying the herpes virus should protect their faces against strong sunlight.

Scientific research suggests that sunburn can alter the distribution and function of disease-fighting white blood cells in humans for up to 24 hours after exposure to the Sun. In addition, repeated exposure to UV radiation may cause more long-lasting damage to the body's immune system. Whilst little research has been conducted on the effects of decreasing stratospheric ozone on human immunity, it is likely that continued destruction of the ozone layer will lead to further health complications, in addition to skin cancers and eye disorders, as a result of the suppression of our ability to fight off disease.